Factors determining Social Status

An individual has two types of status in a society. Ascribed and Achieved, the elements of determining the kinds of status are different. These are given below:

1. Elements Determining Ascribed Status

Sex or Gender :
With the birth of an individual; one's status is determined with reference to one's sex or gender and the whole life treatment with one's is done by keeping in view one's ascribed status of sex or gender, which include dress, food, training and social goal and this is in general one's master status.

ii. Age : 
Status has a deep relation with age because of his position. Other people treatment with him, his duties and rights and expected role is determined by hi age. In a society, a child of three or four years and an old man of fifty or sixty have social positions quite different in spite of all factors being constant, where an individual's effect or ability is not concerned but the position is determined by structure system.

iii. Cast or Social Background : 
In the societies of the Sub-continent, caste is thought important as ascribed status whereas in American society social background plays an important part in determining the ascribed status. Negroes are thought low in status to white men status. In South Africa, under aparthed, blackmen and Asians compared with white men are considered lower in status which affects their ascribed status negatively. Such type of ascribed status superiority gives rise to racism which causes social deprivation in a society.

2. Elements Determining Achieved Status  

i. Occupation : 
Occupation plays an important role in determining the achieved. status. I affects in two ways the position of an individual. In agrarian and reside societies, occupation has social and family position and continues from family t family. Thus, through races that occupation is a means of earning of the family For example, blacksmith, carpenter, weaver, etc. These occupations give the id of their ascribed status because the occupation of the parent determines t primary social position but afterwards when an individual by his own labour an ability adopts a profession that also determines his status. That occupation may his parent's occupation or a newly adopted one. But the effects of occupation related with the structure and nature of the society. Just as an individual belonging to a carpenter's family becomes a doctor by his hard work, education an intelligence, the effects of his parent's occupation will affect his status and new adopted status will be of less importance whereas, in a modern and urban societies the status, of an individual will be determined by his newly adopted occupation and parent occupation will have less importance.
Margaret Mead recorded this observation in his research of tribal heads New Guinea that people thought the occupation as ascribed status and changing thought as social deviation. In Pakistan, the same concept of status exists.

ii. Economic Resources : 
Economic resources i.e., wealth, property and way of getting wealth, have importance in determining the status in a society. In spite of difference of structure of a society, landlords, industrialists and wealthy people have been enjoying high status and in social classification their status is counted as high whereas people with less income have less social status and by classification they are considered of lower grade people. According to the Karl Marx's theory, the determination of status on the basis of resources of wealth is a weapon of the bourgeoisie through which that does cruelty and exploitation in the proletariat class.

iii. Power and Authority : 
Power and authority has always been very important in the societies despite their structure and socio-economic functions. From ancient Hunting and Gathering societies to Agrarian societies and in the modern industrial societies, power and authority has always been an important element and the other individuals of the society have always accepted their power and their position and status and they affect the group and collective decision of a society. Dahrendroff 1959, who is a modern conflict theorist, he says while analyzing the theory of Karl Marx that in ancient tribes, the tribe headship or chief was considered a high status because it was used to change the behaviour of others or decisions or to impress others to continue 4.0 exploit. Thus, in the modern industrial societies, the owner of the industry, manager, legislature, judiciary, bureaucracy and government heads not only keep their power and authority but also try to increase that power to have more respect, honour and regard so that their status should be thought high and superior.

iv. Education : 
Education is a modern element to determine status. In ancient times, magic or such arts were favourite with the ruling class. Masonry, artist, sculpturing and weaponry had some importance in the determination of status. In the age of modern science and technology, the importance of knowledge has increased. Educated and skilled persons have got honour in the modern urban societies and education has been included to determine the status. Education has a status of an important weapon for the achievement of profession, power and authority.

Define the status and Explain through examples the elements determining the achieved and ascribed status

Status 

The social structure of human society demands status of individuals in a society and the nature of their relations should be according to the accepted status of the society. The word status is used about the wealth or fame of an individual but, in sociology, it means somewhat different from its general meanings. This is actually the position of an individual in the structure of a society. Status is a wonderful invention of human beings which relates us with etch other and is able to determine our position in the society. Every society's status has its specific duties, rights and expectations which determine the behaviour of an individual. For instance, the role of a child is recognized in every society and children have specific rights of proper diet and as duty they should respect their elders and expectations are to help to collect food, to play with playmates. According to sociologists, status changes with place, time and with reference to individuals. The rapidity with which an individual changes social interaction with place and other individuals, with the sense rapidity and speed status is changed. For instance, one social situation may have different status just as in a college students, professors, principal, clerks and chowkidar etc. Similarly, one individual may have different status in different social structures just as in a home a son, brother, husband and father etc. In the light of this explanation, status can be defined as :

Definitions : 
1. Van der Zander : "Status means a position in a social structure."

2. R.T. Schaefer : "Status refers to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society."

3. C.H. Persell : "A socially defined position in a society that carries with it certain prescribed rights, obligations and expected behaviours."

4. Paul H. Landis : "Status is that position or place that an individual has on the basis of his specific role in his groups."

5. Ralph Linton : "Status is an open achieved fact in .1 society that gives a higher or lower position to an individual in a group life."

6. Harton and Hunt : "That place or position that societies give to individuals n their group . life."

7. Broom and Silznick : "The place of an individual in a social system is called social status.

Types of Status 

It has two kinds according to sociologists:
1. Ascribed Status : "An ascribed status is assigned to a person by society without regard for the person's unique talent or characteristics." (C.H.. Persell)
Ascribed status is assigned generally with VII: birth of an individual. Just as sex, age, social background and caste etc.
Ascribed status cannot be changed. However, its collective status can change the social .structure just as a caste or social background gets some importance. For instance, in Africa, black were considered inferior and most of their rights were confiscated but sometimes they got their rights and they became first class citizens.

2. Achieved Status : "An achieved status is attained by a person largely through his or her o efforts or talent."
Though this status is determined with reference to social structure but the individual's own mental or physical ability is kept in view and one's effort is of great importance. For example, professorship, athlete and dacoity are achieved status but in the social status, determination, mental ability (Professorship), physical strength for that athlete and effort for dacoity have importance:8A1 social structure the goodness, apprOval and standard determination is already present.
Achieved status is changeable and rules and regulation for this change are present in the social structure and individual are expected to adopt determined ways just as to become a professor a certain educational standard is necessary and it is also necessary to show ability in an interview.

Master Status : 

A sociologist, Hevertt Hughes, observed that in all societies, a few status had more importance than other status and have a central role in determining the position of an individual. These are called master status. According to him the definition of master status is as follows:
"A Master Status is a status that dominates others and thereby determines a person's position within a society."
For instance, an individual has a status of Imam Masjid in a village society. This is his master status and this will determine his general position in home, market and masjid and his other status of father, of husband in home, friend. and customer have no special importance so far as that his ascribed status of sex, age and caste cannot decrease his master status and its respect and regard. Similarly, in tribal societies, the head of tribe on the basis of this master status has a special position and his other status .111 have secondary position and his status will not change because of change of place, time and with reference to social interaction with others.
In some society's caste, social background and religious recognition have the position of master status. In the ancient societies, especially in the modern societies generally, sex is given the master status. With reference to Master Status, Evert Hughes explain's, "Master status is a key or care status that carries primary weight in our social interaction and relationships. It lays the framework within which our goods are formulated and our training is carried out."

Define Social values

Social Values

   Such behaviours or tendencies having importance for the individual of a society and quite fixing their minds and the individuals think them automatically good or bad, are called values. Values both materially and immaterially have their  existence. For instance, in every society of the world, beauty of woman and strength of a man are social values and a precious thing or agricultural land have social values. Values are recognition of a society and also determine the direction of attitude.

Definitions :
1.C.H. Persell :
   "Values are strongly held general ideas people share about what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable."
2. R.T. Schaefer :
   "Values are collective conception of what is 'considered good, desirable or proper or bad, understandable, and improper in a culture."
   In the light of these definitions, it has been explained that values are those behaviours or things which the people include in their lives with their own sweet will and give importance to those. Values serve as a measure to check the behaviour of people. Robin William points out in one of his studies that in a society where marriage is thought an important value the family system is thought strong. He further explains that use of money has a great importance in pointing social values. If individuals spend more money on books, the acquisition of knowledge will be important values. If much is spent on a marriage ceremonies this show will be an important values. Basically, values affect the behaviour and tendency of people. Though, values change but the rate of change is so slow that it is not felt. Therefore, they seem durable and societies have great pressure to retain them. Especially, elders and old class of a society is very anxious about these and do not spare the people doing any change or making these unstable by showing anger.
  
If we see from Indian Pakistani society's point of view:
 i.  Islam is an important social value but the bindings of elements of Islam do not have a social value because saying prayer is not enough estimable and no attempt to say it willingly is done.
 ii. Acquisition of wealth is thought a value in our society and a strong desire to get it, is given an important status of a value.
iii.. Arranged marriage is thought an important value, especially in a village society because love marriage is not liked in provinces of Sindh and Balochistan and the individual doing so are dealt with a custom known as `Karo Kare' which is a sort of punishment.

Causes of Value Conflict :
       Progress in knowledge, awareness of social conditions and rapid economic progress are cause of value conflict. A detail of this is given below :
   1. According to Sociologists, two classes, rulers and the ruled, have different values because of structure and functions and class values are called value conflicts because to adopt class values for the benefit, is a problem of their survival.
   2. In the opinion of functional .theorists, economic progress creates basic changes in the structure of a society and the functions of individual, organizations and groups, change because of changing needs and expectations whereas culture affects minds with full force, brings about alternative values for the same social condition and thus creating a condition of value conflict.
   3. According to social psychologists, generation gap is cause of value conflict because every generation has its own demands with different consciousness and awareness. There is a difference of group relations and their life style gives rise to different values whereas the lives of their elders have different values because of the demand of the time. Both the groups like their values and want continuity and this produces a value conflict in the same social conditions.

Taboo :

       These are some restrictions to fulfill certain needs of society for its survival and regard and some limits are determined to make the structure of the society better and to function correctly. These restrictions or limits are called Social Taboos.
       In the words of C.H. Persell, "Taboo is a strongly prohibited social practice."
       In all societies of the world, there is an incest taboo. With the.evolution of society, this taboo got intensity to the extent of serious dislikedness and hatred in any society. Generally; any activity which has been considered as restructure or prohibited, produces a serious social stress in case of its validation and that becomes a social taboo just as in Islamic society drinking and eating swine meat is a taboo.
       Social taboos are strong social norms which are socially intolerable and collectively the society thinks it against its survival. The society expects its individuals to have the regard of the most strong forms of social norms.

Beliefs :
    The regard about the social objects of a customary religion in any society is, called a belief. Belief is above reason and sense. It cannot be judged through senses and there is no need of it. It is said about belief that it is either correct or not and there is nothing between it.
    According to R.T. Schaefer, "Beliefs are statements to which members of a particular religion adhere."
    It is divided into two parts:
  i.  Religious values
  ii. Cosmology
  i.  Religious values are a common concept of individuals about an object that they are good and the most liked. They determine the rule of an individual and guide him in the social life. For instance, marriage is an important religious duty in Islam and divorce is not liked in Islam and this is to provide survival and guidance to the life of an individual.
ii. The concept of cosmology is a specific concept about its nature. The questions like, what is life, death and world, our coming into this world and leaving it, hell and paradise, soul, angels and a firm belief about the creator of this universe etc.
    The methods and manners derived by religion to express beliefs are called worships or invoking which is an expression of. obedience to Divine power practically.

What do you understand by Social Sanctions and Discuss their importance in the society

Most of us have regard for social norms and accept them for the betterment of society and we expect the same from others. All of these behaviours reflect some basic norms of socialization of a culture and we are bound to act according to them consciously because we, know that if we do not adopt them according to norms, we will have to face punishment from others that can be ridicule, physical punishment or a fine or imprisonment. This system or mechanism of society is called Sanctions.

Social Sanctions

     There is a spontaneous and prompt system in every society to keep it according to the expectations of the individual of a society to keep going on according to the demands of social life; which consist of encouragement or discouragement, praise or ridicule. This reaction is called Social Sanctions.

Definitions :
1. C.H. Persell :
      "Sanctions the rewards or punishments issued by individuals, organizations or societies in an effort to secure conformity of behaviour."
2. R.T. Schaefer :
      "Sanctions are penalties and rewards for conduct concerning Social Norms."
                    

Types of Social Norms

      In order to understand social sanctions, its explanation is done with reference to four types. The detail is given below:
i. Positive Sanctions :
      On adopting a positive, favourite and expected behaviour of an individual of a society shows a pleasant reaction of encouragement or prize is called Positive Sanction.
      Positive sanctions may have the expression of a smile, praise, cash, prize, bonus, model or a certificate award. These rewards point out the cultural values of a society and also provide a mechanism to maintain the cultural values.
ii. Negative Sanctions :
      In order to discourage the non-favourite and deviating behaviour of individuals of a society, the reaction of the society consists of punishment or disliking, is called Negative Sanction. These may consist of anger, hatred, suspension of relations, fine imprisonment, instead of revengeful activity, these have a reformative aspect and their aim is to divert the individuals towards social norms and values to maintain the harmony of the society.
iii. Formal Sanctions :
      There are informal institutions to maintain social control: Folk ways, mores, values and tradition and formal system controls laws, organizations and societies etc. that help the individuals to keep their behaviour impose reward or punishment formal sanctions include models, certificates of merit, fine or imprisonment which are enforced through regular organizations and their rules and regulations and certificates of merit are given through governmental organizations and fines and punishments are given through courts of justice.
iv. Informal Sanctions :
      Such sanctions, without any rules and regulations, are enforced on individuals for going against laws, norms and mores are called Informed Sanctions. These sanctions are the result of some undesired action of some individual as a reaction. For instance, to express hatred, to beat for nothing and to praise on good morals etc. are informal sanctions.
          

The Importance of Social Sanctions

     To keep the social control in the society and to save it from deviation, disorder, dispersion and turmoil, the effective system of sanctions has a great importance because:
  i.   They provide pursuance and punctuality to the social norms of a society.
   

ii.  Social sanctions fake care of social values, customs and traditions and keep their regard and importance in the society, which give the guarantee of the survival of the culture of a society.
  

iii. Social sanctions keep the behaviour, tendency and activities of individuals within limits of culture.
  

iv.  Social sanctions lessen the sense of insecurity and loneliness in the individual of a society and create an emotion of doing something because prizes and awards promote positive behaviour and sense of self-belongingness and unity increases. Instead of separating from the society, an individual, take interest in working together. Because of this mental pressure and depression become less and the individual remains safe from it.
  

v.   Social sanctions in the socialization act as an effective weapon or a policy. In schools, colleges and in other training institutions through these sanctions, individuals under training are kept towards training matters continuously and their record is kept up. A threat of discharge from a school and a reward on good working, the environment of a school becomes pleasant. Discipline is easy to maintain and total working remains satisfactory.
   

vi.  The social sanctions through a balance of fear and joy create a pleasant- ness and agreement between the relations of the individuals of a society, make the working, doing duties easy and confirm the belief of concept of rights which increase the confidence in the structure and environment for the individual of a society and positive behaviours created hope which becomes a source of social control and stability.
   

vii. Social sanctions provide an effective system of safety for cultural heritage because they save cultural heritage from change by giving punishment to law-breakers and awarding the people abiding by good values and beliefs and the cultural heritage is transferred to the next generation in an effective and safe manner and thus, the cultural continuity is maintained.
            

Define Social Discipline and its elements

Definition of Social Discipline

1. Edward Ross :
    According to him, "Collective sentiments for the achievement of collective interests." (Edward Ross 1966-81)
2. R.T. Schaefer :
    "Strategies to maintain positive social behaviours in the society is called social control."
3. C.H. Persell :
    "Social control refers to the relatively patterned and systematic ways in which the society guides and restrains individual's behaviours so that people act in predictable and desired ways."
4. Robertson :
    "The term social control refers to the techniques and strategies for regulating human behaviour in any society."
    Functionalists tend to define social control as the means and processes used by a group or society to ensure the members confer to its expectations.

Means of Social Control

    Social control is an integral part of the survival of a society. Its enforcement is only possible when its members have a solid belief in its sources, their faith-hyphen fullness be attached to them and they must be accustomed to act upon them. Individuals provide an effective system of socialization to the society to make them faithful to the sources of social control and harmonies with the expectations of the society by making it the part of the personality all the cultural trails like values, social norms and tradition etc. There are two basic
sources of enforcement of social control in the society :
  i.  Internal Forces
  ii. External Forces

1. Social Control through Internal Forces/Factors :

   To set up a social control, internal forces influence the individual of a society in three ways and guide the social behaviour in them in such a way that they become according to the expectations of a society. They do not have a biological capability but are created by social way of activity. It means that the individual learns those and adopts in his social life through observation, experience and knowledge.
   Following are the internally affecting elements:

i. Indoctrination :
   It is necessary for social control that its individuals must have an awareness of important views and beliefs and should believe in their correctness. If an individual does not accept a belief, he cannot control himself For instance, if a Muslim does not believe in the Day of Resurrection and he has to present himself before God one day for accountability, he will have no fear of God and as such he will not hesitate to adopt deviating behaviour. Similarly, if a Muslim does not accept Two-Nation Theory of Hindus and Muslims, he will have no care to save his country from Hindus. If a person refuses to drink, it is a clear show of his belief as a Muslim that drinking is hatred in Islam. When beliefs and values conform to the persons belief he acts according to the expectation of a society automatically. Because of which the society becomes an effective system of social control due to internal forces. Fasting is a beautiful example of control in some of  the religions.

ii. Imitation :
   Imitation is a natural feature -of human beings. All animals except parrot and monkey, act according to their genetic features but there is no ability in those to imitate their co-genetics and to react whereas human beings learn from the other human beings by imitating and tries to do so consciously or unconsciously. This is called imitation. Cultural trails like customs, arts and traditions are all social imitations and a source of collective behaviour. When we observe the behaviour of individuals of a society and seeing their interest and social life, we are impressed and imitate them by creating a uniformity and harmony in social behaviours. In Indian and Pakistani society, when we observe that people do not care for red light of traffic signal and carry on their journey, we also feel pride in passing without caring for red light. Thus, this indiscipline becomes a social deviation tendency. Conversely, if a person gets high marks through labour and hard work and gets a high post because of ability and hard work, other also imitate him and do hard work. In this hard work and labour find a way of promotion in a society and deviating attributes are discouraged. In this way, if individual of a society imitates positive social behaviours, there will be a better social control in the society.

iii. Habituation :
     The habits of the individuals of a society are very important in making the social control strong and the behaviour of social life. Habits are an integral part of culture but it is continuous process which is adopted by long practice.
Imitation of believed values and their continuous action appears in the form of habits and when positive social behaviours become part of our habits which are of second nature degree, the external forces of social control arc not necessary because the individual's behaviours work as automatic system and conform to the expectations of the society demands. For instance, we have from our elders that to Salam others is a good habit and we this operative in the society, then we try to do so and this imitation continuous for a long time, becomes our habit and automatically we pay Salam to others and this habit makes us habitual to act upon other such social norms. Thus, religious norms: Nimaz, fasting, zakat; informal norms: marriage, proposals, funeral; and, formal norms: punctuality, respect for traffic laws, games regulation restriction, become our habits and incidents of deviation become less and it does not remain a social problem.

2. Social Control through External Forces/Factors:

     Social control, produced through internal forces is strong and durable but because of increase in population and social complications, sense of strangeness and the respect change in social values make the social control weak. Social disorder demands the help of external forces in the enforcement of control in a
better manner to keep the society free from disorder and dispersion. These are the external forces:
   i.   Socialization
   ii.  Social Sanctions .
   iii. Organizational Power and Authority

i. Socialization :
     In the measures of social control, socialization, internal and external control is important and effective because all sources of control can only be effective when they conform to the socialization. Socialization system is so vast and effective that it not only continue the whole life but also its effects are very durable. The social interaction with the family and at the age of six years with school-fellows, in the youth with the college students and play mates, with workers in the office and with the members of clubs are all important agents for socialization at every step to prevent an individual from deviating formally or informally. In the family, eating manner, speaking manner and other routine matters like sleeping and getting up create a control and discipline in the primary norms of life. In the school, punctuality, uniform, rules and regulations and respect of teachers are kept in view to avoid the punishment by going against the norms. After family, school Is the effective institution of social control. Control and discipline in games is a secondary source of teaching discipline. The fun of the companions and the punishment because of deviation also direct one towards
discipline and control. The formal environment of office by doing a work of formal, social interaction provides a socialization in doing and acting upon rules and regulation and it is an effective sources of promoting this. All slogans of life are the stages of socialization and act as external forces.

ii. Social Sanctions :
   Social sanctions provide an effective mechanism in creating formally and informally a control. Social traditions values by abiding the norms prove helpful inclining the individual of a society towards promotion of control by praise, prize and encouragement and on the performance of duties in a better way by giving medals, certificate and cash prizes. Similarly, such acts of individual of a society which are injurious to the progress and peace of society, to keep them away from damaging or society criticism, warning, fine, punishment and hanging like negative sanctions, .make strong the control by preventing from incidents of
deviation. The effective system of social sanctions provides a guarantee to the social control.

iii. Organizational Power and Authority :
   In the modern industrial society, especially organizational power or authority is necessary for setting up social control. Authority and power are considered more powerful than an individual because they give as a whole the guarantee of survival and progress of a society. As a result, the faithful individuals give their responsibilities to the power arid authority.
 
According to Morgan's Study of Obedience 1978:
   "The authority is viewed as larger and more important than individual; Consequently, the obedient individual shifts responsibility for his or her behaviour to the authority."
   It means that authority gets so much vastness in the society that an individual thinks all of his responsibilities are shifted to it and he will be safe from thieves and dacoits by the authority and he will get help from police instead of doing any action. To arrest the dacoits is the responsibility of the authority. Such a social situation is very helpful in the promotion of social control. The high-handedness of the law is established. An effective power is available to prevent the deviants and to discourage them. The individuals of the society feel sense of safety. In case of some cruelty, there is a likelihood of any hindrance in carrying on the social and economic activities. Organizational powerful authority may consist of the administration of the whole society, which is responsible for control as an external force in a society.
     It is such an effective force that because of structure and functions make one feel its presence and the more the powerful, versatile and efficient it is, the more the social control will be effective and useful.
     It is such an external force that does not prevent only from dispersion, disorder and derivative elements but also catching the accused, to get them punished from courts and put them behind the bars to provide protection to the society, is its duty. It also finishes such motives and prevents them which become a cause of derivative behaviour and weaken the social control. It has the duty of providing basic facilities to the people, providing justice with certainty and reformation of criminals to make them useful citizens, to take steps to prevent narcotics, to prevent social vices and crimes increase, to provide shelter-less and orphans some security and care to make them useful citizens by finishing their sense of insecurity. To provide recreations and games activities to be helpful in the training of control and discipline.
   
Organizational power and authority set up controls in two ways :
     i.   By diagnostic or creative measures. That is to catch the deviants, to get them punished through trial and to imprison them to rectify them to keep the society from their negative effects.
     ii.  Preventive measures that are to prevent the deviants from motives of narcotics, to look after shelter-less people and orphans and prevention of social vices to avoid deviation and to control social discipline.

Form of social deviation

Forms of Social Deviation

    The following are the forms of deviation which are described below :
 1. Cultural and Psychological Deviation :
i. Sin and evils are cultural deviation.
ii. Deviation from personality organization is psychological deviation.

2. Individual and Group Deviation :
 i. Individual deviation :
    Such deviations in which an individual rejects social norms and has its own ways. It is called individual deviation just like, wearing woman like dress by a man and going to office.
 ii. Group deviation :
    When a group collectively rejects the social norms, it is called a group deviation just like dacity in a bank by a group.
       

Primary and Secondary Deviation

 i. Primary Deviation :
    The deviation behaviour of an individual who abides by social norms of the society for the rest of his life is primary deviation, This deviative behaviour can be hidden if it is unimportant and bearable. This deviative behaviour will remain primary till the time when not recognizable at the public level and should not be socially labelled.
 ii. Secondary Deviation :
    The deviative behaviour of an individual that has become his public recognition and has become a label on his personality and in spite of leaving that deviation that label should remain attached to him is called a secondary deviation.
             

 Social Control

All cultures, sub-cultures and members of groups get help from the system of norms to keep the behaviour of its members in a proper manner. All the sociologists agree collectively that if a society is to live, its members are bound to abide by norms. Social discipline and social code had started since the beginning of the social life but its necessary need was felt with the setting up of Agrarian societies when population increased and cultural complications took place. Ways and means to get necessaries of life were determined because of increase of needs of life. In such a case, The system of social control became a necessary need of the society to keep the individuals of the society, according to certain values and regulations.
    Social discipline provides a guarantee to the collective life, produces a uniformity and harmony in social tendency, behaviour and thinking. It brings about human consciousness and a concept of good or bad becoming strong a collective conscious of the society and institution begins to function well. Collective order is created by collective discipline and the society is saved from indiscipline and dispersion to a large extent.

Social deviation is a social problem and describe its causes

Social Deviance as a Social Problem

Social deviation history is as old as is that of society itself. It was also present in the Hunting and Gathering society. This problem came into existence when Agrarian Societies came into existence. Wealth and economic sources took the form of social values but intensity was created in it when two hundred years
back industrial societies began to be established. Village and agrarian societies changed into industrial societies, the population increased, individuals of many sub-culture settled in a locality, the mechanical social control became weak by changing into informal through informal norms, strangeness increased, mutual
relations and social contacts decreased much, the environment for deviation Became congenial, the deviations were encouraged and this increased to the extent to become problem for attention.
   
If Indian or Pakistani society is observed, there is deviation everywhere. From child to old men, from the rich to the poor, inferior to superior, educated to uneducated are not safe from deviated behaviour. Standing on the road, one can see unorganized traffic, cars ignoring traffic signals. There is bribery in offices, undue recommendations, violation of rules, undisciplined environment of schools and colleges, dishonesty in business, adulteration in food and edibles. All of these are deviations, but the greatest deviation is to see this all being done and not to try for its betterment. For a student of Sociology, the greatest problem of India and Pakistan is a compendium of deviated behaviours which have changed the society into a white ants-eaten structure.
                 

Causes of Deviation

          According to functionalists, deviation is a compulsory part of social life and this is learnt just like the learning of other actions as knowledge, art, norms, beliefs and games. Therefore, its causes are present in our society, in our behaviours and in our tendencies. We avoid them sometimes consciously or unconsciously and thus the problem being solved by individual efforts does not seem on the social level by becoming a serious one. These are the causes of such deviations:
   
1. Different Associations :
          Sutherland says that we learn deviation from the people with whom we have common relations. For example, the meeting in which we have more interest, we adopt the behaviour being impressed by that whatever the solution it suggests. If these suggestions are against the norms or traditions then our behaviour will be deviating: There are two important basic sources of different relations or associations: i. family; ii, friends; neighbours and sub-cultures.
   
 i. Family :
          The beliefs values and environment of the family have deep effects on the personalities because an individual learns ways, attitudes and habits from his family. If these are against social norms, then the individual falls a prey to deviation. There are families that teach such derivative behaviours and encourage them. Lawrence Green Field, in 1988, derived his conclusion from his social research that twenty-five percent young men involved in derivative activities were those whose fathers were serving sentences for a crime or had served such a sentence. Twenty-five percent young men were those whose someone member of the family had undergone such a sentence like uncle. This shows that the criminal families' children follow the same path.
   
 ii. Friends and Sub-Culture :
          The second reason of deviation, according to sociologists, is peel group or neighbour relations or sub-culture. An individual is affected by friends and takes part in their activities and unconsciously deviated neighbouring relations also affect in social interaction of vicinity and cause deviation. Similarly, and consciously, ha becomes a member of that group which is a deviated group. The group pressure or self-tendency obliges an individual to take part in deviating activities. If an individual joins a group that remains absent from school or copies in the examination or steals things, then the individual will also being of his friendship join such activities tending to increase the incidents of deviation.
  
2. Broken Homes :
       Family is the basic and important institution in the social life of an individual and controls the norms and tendencies of an individual. Sometimes homes or families are broken due to some accident, economic strain or divorce etc. and the children fall a prey to the limits of relations and love deprivation and their personality is affected, being dissatisfied and dejected, they adopt a deviated behaviour like father's remaining absent from home for a long time and indulge in unhealthy activities.

3. Economic Deprivations :
       "Such societies where a few people possess economic sources and others feel powerless and have nothing to meet their basic needs, there is dissatisfaction and these exhort lower class , to deviate to finish its deprivations." (Walton and Young 1973).

 4. Mal-Socialization :
       Social training is an important source of making the social attitudes according to the expectations of the society but sometimes incomplete or in sufficient training or some deviation producing training becomes a cause of deviation. Just as sometimes:
  i. Social Training :
       It fails in creating a disciplining system in an individual because of which aggression, selfishness and opposite activities grow which is a cause of deviation.
  ii. According to Psychological Theory :
       The lack of social training fails an individual in the completion of certain psychological and social needs and he falls a prey to anger and dispersion and has no suitable behaviour and ways to control this. As a result of this, reaction appears in the form of a deviation and crime under the pressure of some aggression.
  iii. According to Frustration-Aggression Theory :
       And sometimes, individuals of a society observe that the society is favouring such people with honour and praise who are really adopting deviation  behaviour, making them as ideal and role model. For example, people get a better social economic status by the wealth amassed by bribery and they are respected by the society then other individuals also adopt this derivative, practice of bribing.

5. Modeling or Social Learning or Rat Race :
        In the developing societies because of defective enforcement of laws and weaknesses in the social control are created. Some people accidentally or through fraud become rich in a very short time which produces social imbalance and increases the desire of the individuals of a society for getting wealth. This is
explaining by the second stage theory of anomic of Robert Merton. According to him, "Innovators, are people who accept the govt. of society but use illegitimate means to achieve them. Drug dealers, for instance, accept the goal of achieving wealth but reject the legitimate means for doing so." (R.K. Merton. 1968).

6. Misuse of Political Authority :
        Democratically developing societies instead of authoritarian or monarchical style of rule are passing through preliminary stages of democratic System and untrained individuals have become able to use political power and authority but the organs of political institutions are not doing proper functions as Legislative, Judiciary and Executive, the political people start to use power and authority abusively including acquisition of economic sources wrongly, debts, licenses, permits, commission, nepotism and use of threats against opponents and the accountability bureau and organs of state avoid to impose restrictions against them. Other individuals of the society get a motivation from them and adopt deviation activities without any hesitation and the society goes on involved in deviation.

7. Use of Drugs :
        When in the society the increasing population increases strangeness, the neighbouring relation of urban societies grow weak and the supervision of elders over youth becomes less. In such a case, the young people, especially in peer groups use of drug increases and causes a deviation. If the measures of the government are not effective, the drug traffickers are encouraged and they make more people use drugs to increase this deviation. In the fourth stage of theory of Anomie, some individuals of the society reject the cultural good and internationalized means. Such people are called retreatists, (in the Indian and Pakistani
society people like water-men, sweeper, sadhus and seriously depressed people). These people cut themselves off, from the social activities and social good has no meaning for them. Thus, their aimless life falls a prey to deviation. Opium, wine and heroin are the examples of this deviation. They influence the society in a very painful way, especially these young men in the youth choosing this deviation.
       
According to Merton, "People who choose the deviant path, retreat-ism, reject both cultural goals and institutionalized means and achieving them. Such people do not try to appear as though they share the goals of their society. Drug addicts, alcohol users, etc. are typically portrayed as retreatists."

8. Social Change and Cultural Conflict :
   Such societies, where strong and population cultural life is in progress, social norms have the place of common heritage. Where system of socialization is harmonious, when they are affected by social change and prevention of change and its speed is impossible to decrease, the youth is really to change the traditions,
values, beliefs in the manner of their anger and intensity. The societies change into two groups. Elders want the survival of culture and the young accept new values rapidly and reject the cultural life thinking it an obsolete thing and as a result of this, social change takes the form of social conflict. What the old generation thinks deviation the young adopt it as modernity and there is confusion in the society which leads to conscious or unconscious deviation.

9. Family Conflicts :
   Indian and Pakistani society is a prey to this deviation especially. There are many possibilities of conflicts in our society :
   i.  The cultural way of mate selection is our parents' liking which gives rise to emotions of enmity and sometimes deprivation of love becomes the cause of rebellion creating incidents of murder aggression and quarrels etc.
   ii. The maladjustment of bride and her mother-in-law give rise to deviation affecting the family seriously. Heart-bursting incidents and family quarrels are examples of derivative behaviours.

10. Religious Disregardness :
   Traditional societies are under the influence of religious values, beliefs and traditions and help in checking incidents of deviations, religious sanctions play an important part. But the importance of values and religious beliefs become less in urban and industrial societies. Business and social welfare becomes a cause of some distance from religion which makes the religious sanctions weak the fear of deviation from norms and values becomes less.
   According to Durkheim, "Religious institution works as a 'binding force' in the society and provides a strong informal mechanism for preventing the society from indiscipline and disorder. Religious disregardness enhances the deviations."
           

Other Related Concepts

Every religion gives a system of norms to its followers to get them act upon religious beliefs in a correct manner and the deviation of these norms is called sin just as not to say prayer, to eat unlawfully the wealth of orphans and not to serve the parents.
Evils :
    Deviation from social norms, like folk norms and mores is called evil. Just as abusing, teasing women, disrespecting elders or divorcing are social evils in Indian and Pakistani society.

Define social deviation

Deviation

No society of the world has ever been able to create an environment to help all the individuals to live their lives according to social norms. Opposition of social norms is continuous. Every individual may any time deviate from behaviour, may be normative behaviour in one society and in another society it may be a deviation. For example, in Pakistani society, a child is beaten by parents, it is a normative behaviour whereas in Britain, it is a deviation of behaviour. So, deviation requires the study of culture, time and place. According to James M. Henslin : "We must consider deviance with reference to culture, time and space". 

Definition :

1. James H. Henslin :
   "All violations of social rules, regardless of their seriousness."
2. Wickman :
   "Deviance is behaviour that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group of a society."
3. Hat-ton and Hunt :
   "Any failure to conform to customary norms."
   Sociologists think deviation a social behaviour. A common man thinks deviation a negative attitude but, according to sociologists, it is necessary for proper growth of personality and for satisfaction of inner self of a person because it dissipates frustration and restores normal behaviour. However, it is a social behaviour of man and it has been tried to explain in different ways as is detailed below :

Comparing Biological, Psychological and Sociological Explanations :
   Some norms are compulsory for society. Why do the people violate them?
The explanation of the answer of this question has been given by different schools of thoughts—Biologists and Psychologists, differing from that of the sociologists, which is compared here.

Biologists' viewpoint :
   According to them, deviation is natural among individuals. Their physical structure compels them to deviate. Genetic disposition is stressed in biology which is formed because of waywardness and crimes (Lambrose 1911, Sheldon 1949). Three points of view according to biology are important :
1. Intelligence :
     "Low intelligence leads to crime deviation."
2. XYY Theory :
     An extra Y chromosome in males leads to crime deviance.
3. Physical Structure or Body Type :
     Body type-people with, squarish muscular bodies are more likely to commit crimes.

Psychologists' viewpoint :
     The defects of physical body of individual called personality disorders, are a course of deviation. "The supposition is that deviating individuals have deviating personalities." (Kalichman 1988, Heilburn 1990)

Sociologists' viewpoint :
     They answer the question that social environment inclines some individuals towards deviation of social norms. According to the sociologists that outer effects are because of socialization, sub-culture membership and social class.
     We learn social deviation from the people to whom we are attached most of the time (Sutherland 1974-92). We learn deviation like other things from family and friends. Neighbors and sub-culture play an important role in teaching these.
     "Sometimes social environment is so tight and austere that an individual feels that from normative way the attainment of object is difficult, therefore, he adopts a deviation way."

Define the laws in formal norms and what are the importance and functions of laws

Formal Norms

Laws :

Laws are the social norms which are in written form, the manner of their application is fixed and for any deviation-from them, punishment is fixed within certain limits. In the law, proper and improper behaviours are defined. The laws are formal by consultation 'to.control the situation which is dangerous for the stability and integrity of a society.

“Law is the body of rules, made by the Government for the society, interpreted by the courts and backed by the power of the state." (Comings and Wise 1985)

Definition by RT. Schaefer :

“The collection of rules and regulation to keep peace and stability in the society and backed by the power of the state are called laws.”

Characteristics :

1. These are in Written form.
2. Government formulates them by mutual consultation with people.
3. To enforce these laws state powers (Police, Armed forces and Administration) is used.
4. There are organized institutions to punish the defaulters.
     

 Importance and Functions of Laws

1. Enforcement of Peace and Security :
   The basic aim of law is to maintain law and order. The state establishes law-enforcing departments to ensure the security of the society, to enable the people to do their social activities. Armed forces institution not only provides security from external dangers but also helps to restore the serious situations of law and order.

2. Provision of Justice :
   Laws play an important role in keeping social balance because to prevent cruel people from doing cruelty is important function of law. Moreover, catching, getting punished by presenting in the court of law by making criminals, put in jails all the terrorists, murderers, dacoits and thieves is also the function of law to keep society peace and security. Providing justice to the society is the guarantee of the welfare and survival of the society.

3. Promotion of Social.Equality :
   All societies of the world are divided into different grades in respect of economic resources and power authority. The rich and the poor, the weak and the strong are part of every society. Laws provide such a mechanism in the society which tries to balance, this difference and with reference to restriction of social
norms is finished by law. Law tries to maintain an atmosphere of equality in society to establish a peaceful environment just as red light in traffic signal stops all and none is to complain of any violation of right or injustice.

4. Social Solidarity :
   Laws are a strong. mean to keep social solidarity because Govt. makes such laws to be enforced the defaulter's and deviators are controlled through organized institutions steps. Laws are to protect society from dangers of terrorism and fraud because such incidents cause fear and insecurity and laws play an important role to prevent from these incidents effectively and fully and thus provide solidarity to a society making the social activities and relations strong.

5. Social Guidance :
   Norms have an important aim to provide social occasions and guidance and laws are written in formal norms and provide an effective guidance. Laws are the only source of social system that guide the individuals even in very uncertain conditions to adopt a rational attitude to bring an end to the uncertain conditions and provide a positive direction of thinking and protect from terror. For example, in case of murder or dacoity, instead of taking some step or being disappointed, laws provide courage and discipline to the individuals and by Govt. (Police, Judiciary) provided help is a way of getting rid of cruelty and restore the confidence of the society.

Define in detail about Mores and also discuss the importance of mores

Mores :-

Mores are strong norms of a society. Going against mores, is called destruction of morals and has a serious reaction of society.
Mores are a standard or a yardstick of right or wrong which oblige the individual to abide by these and prevent from opposing against those. Individuals of a society believe in this because of their being a guarantee of survival and welfare of the society. Mores do not come into existence by conscious efforts of
individuals of a society but such behaviours that are useful and favourite for the society, gradually find way in the society but after that societies do conscious efforts to keep those current because mores are a necessary behaviour as what is to be done or what is not to be done.

Definition :                        
W.G. Summer :
   "Mores are such ways and manners which are derived for the welfare of a society and these force the people to abide by."
   Mores are higher than Folk ways with reference to stability and importance and the societies demand from individuals to abide by them because the stability and welfare depend acting upon mores. Through these are not in written form, however, poverty, literature, stories and morals are full of these
mores.
 
According to C.H. Persell : "Mores strongly held social norms a violence of which causes a sense of moral outrage."
           

 Importance of Mores

1. Assistance to Social Control :
   Mores provide guidance to individuals of a society to adopt an approved behaviour of different occasions of social life, keeping the social values stable and making the relation of respect among individuals very strong. Harmony is promoted and social discipline becomes strong. In a Pakistani home, before entering, permission is necessary and this is a mores which maintains the regard and respect of the home and its residents. If this mores are opposed, quarrels and fights are likely to take place. Enmities are created and social discipline is difficult to maintain.

2. Preservation of Cultural Integrity :
   Mores are safeguards of culture, keeping the cultural traits and complexes safe from the social changes. Mores make deviation.a danger for cultural integrity by fixing a standard of desirable and undesirable as a result of that, social reaction becomes violent. By discouragement of deviation, cultural values are saved from outrage. In Indian and Pakistani society, arranged marriage is a mores but because of industrial progress, expansion of urban societies, education and so-called freedom, there was a danger of outrage of this mores but to save this mores, the society reacted violently. Literary writers, dramatists and common people of the society showed hatred and because of this tendency of discouragement, the cultural integrity remained safe for serious disintegration.

3. Decrease in Social Deviation : 
Mores are an important source of pointing out social vices because deviating behaviour decreases respect of the individual in the society. Social relations are seriously affected and social disapproval is increased. An individual fails a prey to loneliness and mental depression and tries to save oneself from deviating activities and other members of the Society learn a lessen from him and want to avoid the vices and this in turn decreases the incidents of deviation. In Indian and Pakistani society, drinking and gambling are social vices because of norms, such people are not included in the collective decisions for welfare and thus their respect is injured and as a result of the society they try to avoid consciously from I these Visas and societies are saved from disintegration.

4. Stability in Social Relations :
Mores are a source of mutual respect among individuals of a society.Relations become pleasant. The distinction between good and bad helps in the discouragement of vices. The fear of punishment, social pressure and beating-as a result of deviation from‘mores, helps in making the social discipline strong which
creates a strength and confidence in the relations of individuals of a society. In Indian and Pakistani society, respect for women and sanctity of places of worship are mores. Anyone who opposes these mores, people react against that individual strongly by protesting, by showing anger and condemning, as a result of this reaction mutual regard is promoted, confidence is increased and social relations are strengthened.

What do you mean by social norms and Discuss by giving examples from Indian and Pakistani society the two kinds of social norms

Definitions of Social Norms :

1. C.H. Persell :
     "Norms refer to shared rules about acceptable and unacceptable social behaviour."
2. R.T. Schaefer :
     "Norms are established standards of behaviour maintained by.society."
3. Augburn and Nimkaff :
     "Social norms are those guiding principles of human character which the individuals use for getting their aims."
4. John F. Cuber :
     "Social norms are that expected characters of individuals which they perform on specific social occasions."
5. Paul Self :
     "Social norms are these standards or principles which control human character on social occasion in which they take part."
         

Importance and Functions of Social Norms

Robert K. Merton :
     "Social norms determine the ways for the attainment of goals of individuals of a society by following these to reach their destination."
     This opinion shows the importance of norms in the social life and their functions in making the society stable.
     The detail of these functions is given below:
 
1. Social norms control behaviours of the individuals at different social occasions producing uniformity and harmony just as people walk silently in funeral procession or recite Kalma Shahadat and exchange shouldering of the funeral cot, which is an expected behaviour. If anybody deviates this, the people prohibit that individual form laughing etc. and show anger and hatred for such an individual because his action disrupts the uniformity and harmony of behaviour.
 
2. Social norms play an important part in preventing incidents of deviation from normal standards of society and it remains safe from disintegration and lawlessness. The respect of elders and women is the part of civility of Indian and Pakistani society. If a few people do something wrong with women in their behaviour, the other people of society reacting against their untoward behaviour prevent them form doing so because such incidents amount to quarrels and fights creating indiscipline in a society.
     
3. Social norms serve ,as touch stone for right and wrong standards of  behaviour and rectification is made. If someone abuses for nothing or habitually or smokes before elders or misbehaves with teachers, then he is disliked and his behaviour is condemned and he is admonished to behave like society norms.
     
4. Social norms provide a security to cultural values, traditions, customs and  beliefs which maintain culture and transmit it to next generation. Respect and service of parents is a social value in Pakistani society and to marry, with the consent our social tradition. Regard for the month of Ramadan and paying Zakat are religious beliefs. Society does not like that old parents should wander shelter-less and children should live lavishly or a girl should marry without parents' consent as a court marriage or should marry secretly or should eat openly in the month of Ramadan. Society takes a serious notice of such people. All good traditions are transmitted to the next generation by collective society efforts through advice, stories, marriage functions and festivals etc. to make these norms to continue.
     
5. Social norms play an important part in keeping the structure of social institutions and these are able to keep their functions correct. Individuals do not find any difficulty in the completion of the needs of the society and through social sanctions they create an environment of fear and hope to keep their behaviotirs according to social expectations. In Pakistani society, family is a strong institution to keep it structure because social norms have a strong stress over the relations of wife and husband. Separation or divorce is disliked. Even in very straitened circumstances, a woman is required to keep the entity of family. Parents are expected to bring up children better and children are expected to be obedient to parents which are a conscious effort of keeping the family structure through norms. If social norms system becomes weak, as in the case of Western societies, divorce rate will increase, children will deviate from norms, old parents will wander shelterless with no fear of rejection or hope of reward or applaud and an atmosphere of peacelessness will prevail.
                 

Types of Norms

         There are two types of norms :

l. Informal Norms
2. Formal Norms
Informal norms are divided into two kinds in view of their importance in the society :
i. Folk ways
ii. Mores
The formal norms mean the different laws of the society. The importance of their kinds is given in detail here:

1. Informal Norms

i. Folk ways :
These are the customs and ways which are part of a society and which we adopt for our daily convenience make our image better in the society and increase our acceptance in the society. Folk ways may be in different mores on the same social occasion and some of these may be liked ones or disliked also. In case of disliking, the reactions are not serious. It is rather a source of fun. This term of Folk way was first used by W.G. Summer and defined as:

“Folk ways are accepted behaviours of society which come into existence through mutual interaction and are transmitted automatically from one generation to the next generation.” ’

R.T. Schaefer has defined it as: “Folk ways are norms governing everyday behaviour where violation raises comparatively little concern.”

Importance of Folk Ways

1. Social Solidarity :
Folk ways are a simple manners of social interaction with the help of which individuals find the social interaction because they provide a uniform and expected behaviour way which keeps the society safe from some undesired, disliked and negative behaviour with no fear of disintegration. We say Namastay or Salam to everybody in our Indian Pakistani society when we meet others and in answer to it. We expect the same which is a-Folk way. There is no hope of some abuse or bad tongue like negative behaviour which should become a cause of some quarrel or fight. In this way, Folk: ways give rise to brotherhood, love and stability to the society is promoted.

2. Preservation of Values :
Folk ways unconsciously help in preserving the traditions and values of a society and the cultural heredity is secured. Respecting neighbours, serving travelers, loving children and accepting invitation in the celebrations are basic values of our society and we are bound to act upon them which give not only peace and joy to us but also cultural atmosphere remains pleasant.

3. Group Cohesiveness :
Folk ways are popular and favorite behaviours of group life and any deviation of them is somewhat disliked. Therefore, individuals of society continue these customary Folk ways to avoid from being a source of fun or from getting less respect of the society. In Pakistani society, washing hands before eating food, cleaning of teeth, hair dressing are Folk ways. Any deviation or going against these Folk ways may become a cause of ridicule of others which decreases the group attachment may become less which makes an individual temperamentally imbalanced and his personality suffers with a loss of group entity.

4. Obedience of Customs :
Customs and traditions are backbone of a-.,,culture of a society because these preserve the social style of life and culture. showing joy on the birth of a child or distributing sweets, showing grief on the death and cooperating attitude, arranging for food supply as financial help is a customs. To give salami (some money) on the occasion of proposals or marriage are also custom. Folk ways persuade towards these customs to be performed because they promote a sense of cooperation and sympathy, decrease sense of loneliness and transfer them to next generation. Folk ways are a source of respect and regard for customs.

5. Acquisition of Needs :
Folk ways are guiding principles or way of action which provide guidance for the attainment of basic needs to an individual, living in a society. These keep the behaviours under control and promote mutual respect. If you feel hunger, for example, you go to home, wait with patience for the food being prepared and then all join eating food. This is a Folk way. It is not proper to pick a thing from anywhere to eat. In case you feel thirst, you ask permission to drink water, from a person having a cooler or a pitcher of water and after drinking water gratitude will be shown for that act of kindness. This is 3. Folk way but going against this, will
be an abnormal behaviour. Folk ways create a sort of uniformity in behaviours giving stability and strength to a culture.

Thousands of Folk ways are a part of culture of Indian Pakistani society just like those of other societies. These come into existence and go extinct with the passage of time because the changes in society affect them but some people think them an integral part of social behaviour and keep these durable just like, smiling at shaking hands, sitting respectfully before elders and dressing beautiful clothes on Dewali,Holi and Eid festivals etc.

Explain Social Conflict and Describe its different form with the reference to Indian or Pakistani society

Conflicts

Conflicts are not praiseworthy but it is the most occurring social process. When in the society a benefit or value desire becomes intense and the individuals do either to check its achievement or to damage that consciously, then conflict starts.

     In the dictionary of sociology, Fair Child writes: "Conflict is the name of such a condition in which two or more individuals try to fail the objectives of each other."
     In the words of C.H. Persell : "Conflict is a form of social interaction invoking direct struggle between individuals or groups over commonly valued resources or goals, more interested in defeating opponent."
                 

Types of Conflicts

1. War :
     The most terrible form of conflict in which opponents try to give serious loss of life and property is war. In this social process, social life is crippled and paralyzed and the manner of life changes to a large extent and the society falls a prey to money disorders and this instability has far-reaching effects. The war between Afghanistan and America and it is difficult to estimate its effects.

2. Racial Conflict s:
     There are different races and groups of white, black and yellow people living in the world and when there is a conflict of racism among them, this is called racial conflict as is the case of white and black people in America. In South Africa, white people rule but in minority often did actions to make the majority of  black people and because of this there are often racial conflicts amounting to great physical and financial loss.

3. Class Conflicts :
   All societies of the world are divided into socio-economic classes. Every class has its own benefits. Considering the activities of other classes against their own benefits, they adopt an opposing attitude to these classes which cause a conflict. According to Karl Marx, this type of conflict is the greatest hindrance in the way of social and economic progress. The greatest reason of this conflict according to Karl Marx is the exploitation of the working class by the higher classes. Its examples are a conflict between a mills owner and labourers, landlord and farmers which are common in a capitalistic system.
           

Forms of Conflicts

   In the Indian and Pakistani society, there are conflicts in different departments of life like other societies because it is a necessary part of social life. These are the forms of conflicts:

1. Family Conflicts :-
   Family system in Pakistan is strong and is a good example of cooperation but there are many matters in the family where there is conflict. In the village society because of common family system by the name patriotically family which produces a conflict between mother-in-law and wife of son. In addition, husband-
wife quarrels envelope families to the extent of fight and murder. Property division among brothers causes conflicts etc.

2. Religious or Sectarian Conflicts :-
   The most of the people of Pakistan have Islam as religion and the religion of Islam teaches brotherhood and peace but in spite of this, people are divided into sects and the conflicts among different sects is increasing and becoming a problem. There are bomb blasts, murder of religious leaders and as a result of this there are riots, burning incidents and blood-sheds to the terrible extent.
   The conflicts of religious types are seen in Bharat where there are Hindu- Muslim riots and murder of Muslims. In Europe, there is conflict between Catholics and Protestants. In Palestine, there is conflict between Muslims and Jews.

3. Individual Conflicts :-
   Sometimes complication of economic emotional attachment for a specific purpose and its attainment produces conflicts. In the beginning, this conflict is individual but soon it emerges as group conflict and two groups are produced. In Indian and Pakistan, village society especially and urban society generally suffer individual conflicts. Murders are caused of individual petty matters which become intense to
the extent of murder, fighting, loss of property and finally litigation.
     

Negative or Destructive Effects of Conflict

     Conflicts always result in negative effects on society. Individuals of a society often attempt to avoid these conflicts. The detail of these losses is given :
       1. Conflicts produce between individuals and groups and hatred is created and segregation occurs between groups and social interaction becomes less which causes many social complications and difficulties.
       2. Conflicts cause physical and property destruction among groups which reverse their progress and economic sources are destroyed.
       3. Conflicts lead to inter-group tensions. Daily functions and their sources are limited and cooperation is finished because of destruction of channels of cooperation.
       4. Conflicts divert the attention of the groups from social aims and energies are used to cope with conflicts and this decreases the facilities for the society and progress rate becomes a secondary aim.
       

Accommodation

     Conflict and competition cannot go side by side always because conflict is cause of loss of time and competition keeps people continuously active. Conflict produces a tension in the social atmosphere and makes it unpleasant. This is to be terminated and positive and approved relations are to be developed producing an accommodation.
     Accommodation is a permanent or a temporary activity which suspends the aggressive attributes of conflicting groups and persuades these to cooperate without deciding the disputed matters.

Definition:
     "Accommodation is a process of developing temporary working agreements between conflicting individuals or groups."
               

Form of Accommodation

     The following are the forms of accommodation:
i. The Truce :-
     This situation of truce is found in almost every society. This suspends the disputed problem for some time to postpone conflict. In other words, "Without reaching a decision to prevent a conflict for decision in the near future."

ii.Temporary Domination or. Super Ordination :-
   When any of the conflicting group gets an edge over another temporarily, this accommodation comes into existence. When the balance of power between the conflicting parties is seriously disturbed and resistance may seem, useless or impossible, the weak party accepts the edge of the powerful party to avoid losses.
This is a temporary domination. This type of action is continuing in the societies and this provides a safety to avoid from serious losses.

iii. Compromise :-
   "Compromise is a form of accommodation in which each party accepts less than its full goals in order to avoid or end the conflict." When two groups are strong enough not to conquer each other or the price of conquest be very great loss, then both the parties agree to provide facilities being agreed upon some point
is called compromise. Compromise is a temporary settlement. When a party feels that its interests are being affected it can finish it and it can be permanent also and in this case, both the parties seem satisfied.Generally, a compromise lessens differences permanently.

iv. Tolerance :-
   "Tolerance is to accept each other's difference without insisting for a compromise." Some conflicts are such where no party is victorious because they belong to such values which cannot be abandoned and no compromise is also possible. These values are precious. In the circumstances, the two parties willing or not willing find out a way to cooperate without doing some compromise. It is called tolerance. In spite of serious differences in religious values, every sect sharing tolerance acts upon its own religious beliefs.

v. Displacement :-
   It is such an activity in which conflict is finished by another conflict or a party changes its direction which decreases the chance of conflict.
   Its best example is that the internal conflict of a country should be replaced by making fear of war and thus national integrity is produced. In this Way, internal group conflicts come to an end.

  Assimilation :-

   When two groups are assimilated, the mutual social characteristics are different in a cultural manner which cause assimilation.

Definitions :-
 1. According to R.T. Schaefer: "Assimilation is the process by which a person forsakes his or her own cultural traditions to become part of a different culture."
 2. "The process of mutual cultural diffusion through which persons or groups become culturally alike is called assimilation."
 3. C.H. Persell defines: "Assimilation involves the merging of minority and majority groups into one group with a common culture and identity."
 4. Newman defines: "A gradual process where' by cultural differences tends to disappear."
   He gives an example A+B+C=A
   Where A is a majority group which has its power in all matters. The minority groups B and C try to copy the cultural ways of A to merge and look like
A. Diffusion affects to the roots of recognition and obliges minority groups to have their culture to merge into new culture.


The Marginal Man :-
   Such an individual who has been brought up in one culture and he passes through diffusion to another culture but he cannot complete this act of diffusion, so after some behaviours of cultures. None of the cultures is his recognition and he is called a marginal man. He has to face several social problems and complication :
1. Therefore, he is partially socialized so he is unable to adopt both the cultures.

2. He finds a difficulty in adjusting to the opposite views and behaviours of both the cultures which affects his mental harmony.

3. When both cultures reject a marginal man, he finds many complications because he does not think himself as part of any of the cultures. The result is that, he falls a prey to insecurity. Thus he loves recognition and belongingness. If this action is with an individual, he falls a prey to loneliness and deserted feelings or he likes to suffer such a condition to get attachment in the form of sympathy. But this action is with majority group like religious, social or language group that acquires physical separation by trying to keep relation with original culture and get security for these problems.

Amalgamation :-
   To form a common group having common characteristics of majority and minority group is called amalgamation. It happens by the time when two or more biological and cultural groups pass through differences and form a new shape inter-marriage for several generation or holding festivals and interaction cause amalgamation. For this, the mutual consent of both the groups are necessary. Separate identity feelings can prevent this process to completion.